Drugs of Natural Origin: A Treatise of Pharmacognosy, Sixth Revised Edition

Summary

Drugs of Natural Origin provides a multidisciplinary approach suitable for those working in the area of natural product development.   It brings together research on the sustainable use of natural products in the development of new drugs, scientifically based herbal remedies, and environmentally adapted biomolecules.

During evolution, molecules evolved to perform specific functions in nature. By understanding their natural function, we can develop ways to make use of these bioactive substances a potential new drug candidates and also as pharmacological tools, intermediates, or templates for the synthesis of novel drugs. This book examines terrestrial and marine bioactive substances drawn from plant, microbial, and animal origin. Their occurrence, biosynthesis, isolation, chemistry, and medical use are described, together with basic research strategies.

Development in the field of natural products of medical importance continues to expand. Since the publication of the 5th edition of this book, five years ago, new concepts such as chemo- and bioinformatics, phylogenetics and systems biology with the new "omics" techniques (genomics, proteomics and metabolomics) have emerged. Herbal remedies have become subject to more rigid legislation aiming to improve their quality and efficacy, both as over-the-counter preparations for self-medication and as constituents of conventional drugs. This development is reflected in a substantial revision and expansion of the book. This edition also describes many new drugs marketed since the publication of the previous edition.

Students and professors in the area of natural product research,as well as complementary disciplines like medicinal chemistry, biochemistry, and pharmacology will find much relevant information in this books.

Table of Contents

Introduction                                

Definitions                                   The history of natural products in medicine         Natural products as modern drugs                 Production of drugs based on natural products       The role of natural products in drug discovery       Plants used in traditional medicine Ethnopharmacology                         Natural products from marine organisms         Combinatorial biosynthesis                   Screening of randomly chosen organisms        Chemoinformatics and phylogenetics           Systems biology                               Application of the systemic biology approach to the study of naturl products used in medicine     Pharmacognosy as a research subject              Further reading                                Plant derived Crude drugs and Herbal Remedies                            Nomenclature                                 Production of crude drugs from medicinal plants     Cultivation of medicinal plants                Propagation of plants                        Plant breeding                              Collecting and harvesting medicinal plants       Preservation of plant material                  Storage of crude drugs                       Quality control of crude drugs                 Sterilization of crude drugs                   Preparations of crude drugs                      Grinding of crude drugs                      Herbal "Teas"                              Extracts                                   Herbal remedies                               Definitions and trade regulations               Side effects                                Interactions                                Information sources                         Isolation of pure compounds from extracts of crude drugs and other organisms                       Isolation of compounds with known properties    Bioassay-guided isolation                     Industrial high-throughput screening of extracts   Further reading                                Biotechnological Drug Production         Production of Antibiotics                        The growth curve of microorganisms            Energy metabolism and production of metabolites in microorganisms                          Technical aspects on the producton of antibiotics Plant tissue and cell culture (Plant Biotechnology)    Callus cultures                             Suspension cultures                         Organ cultures and regeneration of plants        Environmental factors of importance for plant tissue and cell culture                        Tissue and cell culture in plant breeding        Industrial production of natural products by plant tissue and cell cultures                      Future prospects for plant biotechnology in the production of drugs                           Further reading                              Formation of Pharmacologically Active Compounds in Plants – Biosynthesis        Photosynthesis                               Light reactions and dark reactions             Dark reactions                             Photorespiration                              C3 Plants                                 CAM and C4 plants                         Biosynthetic pathways                         Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle            Investigation of biosynthetic pathways         Transporters of secondary metabolites          Classification of natural products                 Further reading                               Carbohydrates                              Monosaccharides                             Disaccharides                                Polysaccharides                              Gums and mucilages                        Reduction products of carbohydrates: sugar alcohols 5 Natural products related to carbohydrates          Glycosides                                  Aminoglycoside antibiotics                     Acarbose                                    Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH                        Further reading                               Natural Products Derived Biosynthetically from Shikimic Acid                         Shikimic acid                                Localization of the shikimic acid pathway       The enzymes of the shikimic acid pathway      Biosynthesis of shikimic acid                 Gallic acid and tannins                         The aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan                               Biosynthesis of tyrosine and phenylalanine      Biosynthesis of tryptophan                   Phenylpropanes                               Typical phenylpropanes                     Adaptogens                               Coumarins and furanocoumarins              Substances formed from phenylpropanes by shortening of the side-chain                  Further reading                               Natural Products Derived Biosynthetically from Acetate                                The acylpolymalonate pathway              Fatty acids                                   Saturated fatty acids                        Unsaturated fatty acids                      Other derivatives of fatty acids               Fats and waxes                               Fats                                     Waxes                                   Phospholipids                                Eicasonoids                                  Prostaglandins                             Thromboxanes                            Leukotrienes                              Lipstatin                                 Polyketides                                  Polyketides derived from acetate or propionate      Macrolides                               Erythromycins                             Avermectins                              Spiramycins                              Polyene macrolide antibiotics                 Epothilones                               Griseofulvin                              Aflatoxins                                Mevastatin and lovastatin                    Leptospermone and Nitisinone                Mupirocin                                Tetracyclines                              Anthracyclines                            Enediynes                                Anthraquinones                            Polyketides of mixed biogenetic origin            Flavonoids                                Kava pyrones                             Flavonolignans                            Mycophenolic acid                         The ansamycin group of antibiotics            Rapamycin                               Tacrolimus (FK-506)                       Rotenoids                                Khellin                                  Sodium cromoglycate                       Further reading                               The isopentenyl diphosphate pathway Isoprenoids Mevalonic acid and isopentenyl diphosphate       The non-mevalonate pathway for the biosynthesis of isoprenoids                                Monoterpenes                                Biosynthesis of monoterpenes                Hydrocarbons                             Alcohols                                 Aldehydes                                Ketones                                  Phenols                                  Iridoids and secoiridoids                     Other oxidized monoterpenes                 Sesquiterpenes                               Biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes                Diterpenes                                   Biosynthesis of diterpenes                   Triterpenes and steroids                        Biosynthesis of triterpenes and steroids         Biosynthesis of pentacyclic triterpenes         Biosynthesis of tetracyclic triterpenes and steroids 38 Triterpenes                               Saponins                                 Modified triterpenes                        Steroidal hormones                         Cardiac glycosides                         Glycosides from Digitalis purpurea            Glycosides from Digitalis lananta             Other cardiac glycosides                     Vitamin D                                Tetraterpenes                                 Biosynthesis of tetraterpenes                 Further reading                               Amino acids                                 2-oxoglutaric acid group                       Pyruvic acid group                            Oxalacetic acid group                          Serine group                                 Histidine                                    Aromatic amino acids                          Essential amino acids                          Toxic, non-proteinogenic amino acids             Further reading                               Natural Products Derived Biosynthetically from Amino Acids                          Peptides and proteins                          Symbols for the amino acids in primary structures of peptides and proteins             Proteolytic enzymes                        Ribosome inactivating proteins (RIP toxins)     Lectins                                   Amanita toxins                            Snake venoms                             Lizard toxins                              Ziconotide                                Mistletoe toxins                           Cyclotides                                Non-ribosomal polypeptides                  Glycopeptide antibiotics                     Streptogramin antibiotics                    â-Lactam antibiotics                        Other â-lactams                           Vitamines derived from amino acids              Cyanogenic glycosides                         Glucosinolates (mustard-oil glycosides)           Further reading                               Alkaloids                                   General aspects                               Amino alkaloids                              Pyridine and piperidine alkaloids                 Tropane alkaloids                             Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (Senecio alkaloids)         Quinolizidine alkaloids (Lupinus alkaloids)        Isoquinoline alkaloids                          Protoberberine alkaloids                     Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids                 Bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloids               Amaryllidaceae alkaloids                       Benzophenanthridine alkaloids                  Terpenoid tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids         Indole alkaloids                              Simple indole alkaloids                     Terpenoid indole alkaloids                   Quinoline alkaloids                            Imidazole alkaloids                            Steroidal alkaloids                            Aconitum alkaloids                            Guanidinium alkaloids                         Further reading                               Purines and Pyrimidines                   Purine derivatives                             Biosynthesis                              ATP                                    Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)                        Coenzyme A (CoA)                        Guanosine 5´-triphosphate (GTP)             Riboflavin                                Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)                  5,6,7,8-Tetrahydrofolate (THF, Vitamin B9)     Caffeine, theobromine and theophylline        Pyrimidine derivatives                         Uridine triphosphate (UTP)                  Cytidine triphosphate (CTP)                  Cytarabine (Ara-C)                         Thiamin (Vitamin B1)                       Further reading                               Appendix I                                 Index