Flavour and Consumer Perception of Food Proteins Edited by Jing Zhao; Changqi Liu

The United Nations predicted that the global population would reach 9.7 billion by 2050 and 10.4 billion by 2100. With this growth, there will be a heightened demand for high-quality proteins, as they are an essential nutrient and important food ingredient. Moreover, the rise in consumer awareness for health and fitness, increasing disposable income, growing demand from the millennial population for supplements, and the rise in popularity of alternative proteins as substitutes for meat and animal products are driving the growth of the protein ingredient market.

Many studies have investigated the functional properties of protein ingredients, such as their solubility, foaming, emulsification, gelation, water holding, and oil absorption properties. However, there is limited research on their flavour characteristics and protein–flavour interactions in different processing conditions and formulations. Certain proteins have distinct odours, hindering their widespread applications. For example, soy and pea proteins are often described as having a green, beany off-flavour by consumers. Profiling flavour compounds and removing or masking the off flavours are crucial for product development and quality control. This book provides consolidated information on the flavour of food protein ingredients and highlights areas for further research, serving as a resource for the food industry and researchers studying food proteins and flavours.

In this book, we use terms such as traditional proteins (from animal sources like meat, seafood, dairy, and eggs), plant/vegetable proteins (from plants like cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes), and novel proteins (from bacteria, fungi, algae, edible insects, and cultured meat) to describe food proteins from various sources. Leaf and oilseed proteins are grouped under novel proteins as they are not widely used.

1. Cover
2. Half title
3. Series editors
4. Title
5. Copyright
6. Preface
7. Contents
8. Chapter 1 Overview of Protein Flavours
9. 1.1 Introduction
10. 1.2 Protein Market Overview
11. 1.2.1 Whey Protein Market
12. 1.2.2 Plant Protein Market
13. 1.2.3 Novel Protein Market
14. 1.3 Sensory Impacts and Flavour of Food Proteins
15. 1.3.1 Taste of Amino Acids and Protein Hydrolysates
16. 1.3.2 Taste of Proteins
17. 1.3.3 Odours of Proteins
18. 1.4 Protein and Peptide as Flavour Precursors
19. 1.4.1 Protein and Peptide as Precursors of Meat Flavours
20. 1.4.2 Preparation of Maillard Reaction Products
21. 1.4.3 Taste of Maillard Reaction Products
22. 1.4.4 Aroma of Maillard Reaction Products
23. 1.4.5 Applications of Maillard Reaction Products
24. 1.5 Conclusions
25. Abbreviations
26. References
27. Chapter 2 Consumer Perceptions of Food Proteins and Protein-enriched Foods
28. 2.1 Introduction
29. 2.2 Protein Concentrate, Isolate, and Hydrolysate
30. 2.2.1 Whey Protein Concentrate, Isolate, and Hydrolysate
31. 2.2.2 Online Consumer Reviews of Soy Protein Isolate Powders
32. 2.2.3 Rice Protein Concentrate, Isolate, and Hydrolysate
33. 2.3 Consumer Acceptance of Protein-based Foods
34. 2.3.1 Protein Shakes and Beverages
35. 2.3.2 Protein Bars
36. 2.3.3 Animal Food Alternatives
37. 2.4 Protein-enriched Foods
38. 2.4.1 Meat Products
39. 2.4.2 Dairy Products
40. 2.4.3 Baked Foods
41. 2.4.4 Snacks
42. 2.4.5 Dessert
43. 2.4.6 Wine and Beverages
44. 2.4.7 Other Products
45. 2.5 Consumer Studies on Novel Proteins
46. 2.5.1 Algae Proteins
47. 2.5.2 Cultured Alternative Products
48. 2.6 Conclusion
49. Abbreviations
50. References
51. Chapter 3 Chemical and Instrumental Characterization of Protein–Flavor Interactions
52. 3.1 Introduction
53. 3.2 Methods to Measure Reversible Protein–Flavor Interactions
54. 3.2.1 Early Methods
55. 3.2.2 Equilibrium Headspace Analysis
56. 3.2.3 Headspace Solid-phase Microextraction
57. 3.2.4 Headspace In-tube Extraction
58. 3.2.5 Equilibrium Membrane Dialysis
59. 3.2.6 Inverse Gas Chromatography and Radioisotopes
60. 3.3 Irreversible Bonding
61. 3.3.1 Default Methods
62. 3.3.2 Vacuum Stripping
63. 3.3.3 Indirect Methods
64. 3.4 Direct Methods
65. 3.4.1 Mass Spectrometry
66. 3.5 Conclusions
67. Abbreviations
68. References
69. Chapter 4 Flavor–Protein Binding on Flavor Delivery
70. 4.1 Introduction
71. 4.2 Types of Flavor–Protein Reactions
72. 4.3 Reversible Bonds
73. 4.3.1 Effect of Protein Type on the Formation of Reversible Bonds
74. 4.3.2 Effect of the Chemical Properties of a Flavor Molecule on Flavor Binding
75. 4.3.3 Effect of Protein Hydrolysis on Flavor Binding
76. 4.3.4 Effect of Protein Heat Denaturation on Flavor Binding
77. 4.3.5 Environment Effects on Flavor–Protein Binding
78. 4.4 Irreversible Bonds (Covalent Bonding)
79. 4.4.1 Protein–Flavor Covalent Reactions
80. 4.4.2 Effect of Protein Type on the Formation of Flavor Bonding
81. 4.4.3 Effect of the Chemical Properties of a Flavor Molecule on Flavor Binding
82. 4.4.4 Environment Effects
83. 4.5 Related Research
84. 4.5.1 Metabolic Disruption by Protein: Small Molecule Reactions
85. 4.5.2 Loss of Bioactivity via Reaction with Proteins
86. 4.6 Summary
87. Abbreviations
88. References
89. Chapter 5 The Flavour of Dairy Proteins
90. 5.1 Introduction
91. 5.2 Sources of Flavours in Milk and Dairy Products
92. 5.3 Dairy Protein Flavours
93. 5.4 Flavours of Major Dairy Protein Ingredients
94. 5.4.1 Milk Concentrates: NDM and SMP
95. 5.4.2 Milk Protein Concentrates and Isolates: MPC and MPI
96. 5.4.3 Casein Proteins
97. 5.4.4 Whey Proteins
98. 5.5 Off-Flavours from Dairy Protein Ingredients
99. 5.5.1 Off-aromas (Taints)
100. 5.5.2 Off-tastes
101. 5.6 Conclusion
102. Abbreviations
103. References
104. Chapter 6 Flavour of Fish and Fish Proteins
105. 6.1 Introduction
106. 6.1.1 Fish Production and Consumption
107. 6.1.2 Fish Production By-products
108. 6.1.3 Fish Protein and Hydrolysates
109. 6.2 Fish Flavour
110. 6.2.1 Overview of Fish Flavour
111. 6.2.2 Generation of Fish Flavour
112. 6.2.3 Effect of Processing on the Volatiles
113. 6.3 Characteristics and Bioactive Compounds of Fish Protein Products
114. 6.4 Conclusion
115. Abbreviations
116. References
117. Chapter 7 Soy Protein Flavours
118. 7.1 Overview of SPI
119. 7.1.1 Introduction of SPI
120. 7.1.2 Applications and Limitations of SPI
121. 7.2 Off-flavours
122. 7.2.1 Off-flavours in SPI
123. 7.2.2 Off-flavours in Soy Products
124. 7.2.3 The Production of Off-flavours in SPI
125. 7.2.4 Factors Affecting Off-flavours
126. 7.3 Methods for Removal of the Off-flavours
127. 7.3.1 The Cultivation of Soybean Varieties Without LOXs
128. 7.3.2 Thermal Treatment
129. 7.3.3 High-pressure Treatment
130. 7.3.4 Irradiation Treatment
131. 7.3.5 Biotic Elicitor Treatments
132. 7.3.6 Ultrasound Treatment
133. 7.3.7 Solvent Extraction Treatment
134. 7.3.8 β -Cyclodextrin Treatment
135. 7.3.9 Salting-out Treatment
136. 7.4 Conclusion
137. Abbreviations
138. References
139. Chapter 8 Pulse Protein Flavour
140. 8.1 Introduction
141. 8.2 Pulse Protein Profiles
142. 8.2.1 Amino Acid Profile of Pulse Proteins
143. 8.2.2 The Composition of Pulse Proteins
144. 8.3 Preparation of Pulse Protein Extracts
145. 8.3.1 Dry Processing
146. 8.3.2 Wet Processing
147. 8.3.3 Impact of Extraction Method on the Protein Flavours
148. 8.4 Volatile Profiles of Pulse Proteins
149. 8.4.1 Major Flavour Compounds in Pulse Proteins
150. 8.4.2 Flavour Sources of Pulse Protein
151. 8.4.3 The Interaction of Flavour Compounds and Proteins
152. 8.5 Processing Technologies
153. 8.5.1 Soaking
154. 8.5.2 Boiling
155. 8.5.3 Roasting
156. 8.5.4 Extrusion
157. 8.5.5 Germination
158. 8.5.6 Fermentation
159. 8.5.7 Others
160. 8.6 Conclusion and Future Trends
161. Abbreviations
162. References
163. Chapter 9 Flavour of Cereal and Pseudocereal Proteins
164. 9.1 Introduction
165. 9.2 True Cereals
166. 9.2.1 Flavour of Corn Proteins
167. 9.2.2 Flavour of Wheat Proteins
168. 9.2.3 Flavour of Rice Proteins
169. 9.2.4 Flavour of Barley and Barley Proteins
170. 9.2.5 Flavour of Sorghum and Sorghum Proteins
171. 9.2.6 Flavour of Millet Proteins
172. 9.2.7 Flavour of Oat Proteins
173. 9.3 Flavour of Pseudocereal Proteins
174. 9.3.1 Flavour of Amaranth Proteins
175. 9.3.2 Flavour of Buckwheat Proteins
176. 9.3.3 Flavour of Chia Proteins
177. 9.3.4 Flavour of Quinoa Proteins
178. 9.4 Summary
179. Abbreviations
180. References
181. Chapter 10 Flavour of Novel Food Proteins
182. 10.1 Introduction
183. 10.2 Flavour of Algal Proteins and Peptides
184. 10.2.1 Flavour of Algae
185. 10.2.2 Flavour of Algal Proteins
186. 10.2.3 Flavour of Macroalgae Protein Hydrolysates
187. 10.3 Flavour of Bacterial Proteins
188. 10.4 Flavour of Fungal Proteins and Peptides
189. 10.4.1 Flavour of Proteins from Filamentous Fungi
190. 10.4.2 Flavour of Mushroom Proteins and Peptides
191. 10.4.3 Flavour of Yeast Proteins and Peptides
192. 10.5 Flavour of Insect Proteins and Peptides
193. 10.6 Flavour of Leaf Proteins
194. 10.7 Flavour of Oilseed Proteins
195. 10.7.1 Flavour of Canola/Rapeseed Proteins and Peptides
196. 10.7.2 Flavour of Cottonseed Proteins
197. 10.7.3 Flavour of Flaxseed Protein Hydrolysates
198. 10.7.4 Flavour of Hempseed Proteins
199. 10.7.5 Flavour of Mustard Seed Proteins
200. 10.7.6 Flavour of Sesame Proteins
201. 10.7.7 Flavour of Sunflower Seed Protein Hydrolysates
202. 10.8 Flavour of Tuber Proteins and Peptides
203. 10.9 Flavour of Cultured Meat
204. 10.10 Flavour Formation Catalysed by Leghaemoglobin
205. 10.11 Concluding Remarks
206. Abbreviations
207. References
208. Subject Index